Merkle trees are hash-based data structures used to validate large amounts of data in an efficient manner. This data structure is used to solve the previously time-consuming and computationally expensive problem of keeping data consistent across multiple computers. Prominent uses of a Merkle tree - and its variations- are in peer-to-peer networks such as Bitcoin, Ethereum, Git, and Tor.
This diagram illustrates a fully balanced Merkle tree. As you can guess from the illustration, the Merkle hash root maintains the integrity of the data. If any of the nodes are changed, or the order of the data items is changed, the Merkle hash root will be completely different.
This is what an "artificially" balanced tree looks like (a tree whose number of leaves is not a power of two):
We had to add an empty light-weight node in order to keep it balanced. Therefore, when we append a new leaf, we can just replace that empty node and recalculate the hash root.
Audit proof lets you verify that a specific data record is included in the database. Usually, the server maintaining the database provides the client with a proof that the record exists in that database. If a Merkle audit proof fails to produce a root hash that matches the Merkle root hash (which is obtained from a trusted authority), it means that the data record is not in the database.
The diagram below illustrates how you should construct an audit proof:
In this example, we need to provide a proof that the record D exists in the database.
Since we already know the hash value of D (we can easily compute it), we will need H-3 in order to compute D-2. Now, when we are able to compute D-2, we will need to get D-1 in order to obtain the hash value of T-1, and so on...
You've got the gist, right? We only need to grab the sibling node and climb up the tree until we've reached the root. This implements everything described above.
A Merkle consistency proof lets you verify that any two versions of a database are consistent: that is, the later version includes everything in the earlier version, in the same order, and all new entries come after the entries in the older version.
Install it:
pip install merklelib
or clone it:
$ git clone git clone https://github.com/vpaliy/merklelib.git
This snippet demonstrates how to build a Merkle tree and verify leaf inclusion:
import string
import hashlib
from merklelib import MerkleTree
# a sample hash function
# you can also omit it and the default hash function will be used
def hashfunc(value):
return hashlib.sha256(value).hexdigest()
# a list of all ASCII letters
data = list(string.ascii_letters)
# build a Merkle tree for that list
tree = MerkleTree(data, hashfunc)
# generate an audit proof the letter A
proof = tree.get_proof(hashfunc('A'))
# now verify that A is in the tree
# you can also pass in the hash value of 'A'
# it will hash automatically if the user forgot to hash it
if tree.verify_leaf_inclusion('A', proof):
print('A is in the tree')
else:
exit('A is not in the tree')Or you may want to perform a consitency check (using <, <=, >, >= operators):
(some code will be omitted)
tree = MerkleTree(get_data())
...
...
...
new_tree = MerkleTree(get_new_data())
# check if the new tree contains the same items
# and in the same order as the old version
if tree <= new_tree:
print('Versions are consistent')
else:
exit('Versions are different')Alternatively, you can use the verify_tree_consitency function for this:
from merkelib import MerkleTree, verify_tree_consistency
...
...
...
# information that we need to provide
old_hash_root = old_tree.merkle_hash
old_tree_size = len(old_tree)
# check if the new tree contains the same items
# and in the same order as the old version
if verify_tree_consistency(new_tree, old_hash_root, old_tree_size):
print('Versions are consistent')
else:
exit('Versions are different')You can build a Merkle tree and nicely display it in the terminal:
from merklelib import MerkleTree, beautify
transactions = get_transactions(user) # random data
tree = MerkleTree(transactions)
beautify(tree) # print the tree in the terminalOutput:
e11a20bae8379fdc0ed560561ba33f30c877e0e95051aed5acebcb9806f6521f
├── 862532e6a3c9aafc2016810598ed0cc3025af5640db73224f586b6f1138385f4
│ ├── fa13bb36c022a6943f37c638126a2c88fc8d008eb5a9fe8fcde17026807feae4
│ │ ├── 5feceb66ffc86f38d952786c6d696c79c2dbc239dd4e91b46729d73a27fb57e9
│ │ └── 6b86b273ff34fce19d6b804eff5a3f5747ada4eaa22f1d49c01e52ddb7875b4b
│ └── 70311d9d203b2d7e4ff70d7fce219f82a4fcf73a110dc80187dfefb7c6e4bb87
│ ├── d4735e3a265e16eee03f59718b9b5d03019c07d8b6c51f90da3a666eec13ab35
│ └── 4e07408562bedb8b60ce05c1decfe3ad16b72230967de01f640b7e4729b49fce
└── f4685cb09ef9f1c86b2d8f544d89f1c1d3592a3654beb8feecad11e9545e0e72
├── 67d62ee831ff99506ce1cd9435351408c3a845fca2dc0f34d085cdb51a37ec40
│ ├── 4b227777d4dd1fc61c6f884f48641d02b4d121d3fd328cb08b5531fcacdabf8a
│ └── ef2d127de37b942baad06145e54b0c619a1f22327b2ebbcfbec78f5564afe39d
└── ac6621607d32037664f03f92a4aae94d4c97f6bbcf438ff20509311681e6b259
├── e7f6c011776e8db7cd330b54174fd76f7d0216b612387a5ffcfb81e6f0919683
└── 7902699be42c8a8e46fbbb4501726517e86b22c56a189f7625a6da49081b2451
You can also export the output above as an image or a JSON file. This is how you'd do it:
from merklelib import MerkleTree, export
transactions = get_transactions(user) # random data
tree = MerkleTree(transactions)
export(tree, filename='transactions', ext='jpg')Default extension is always .json. You can also specify an absolute path.
However, in order to be able to use the export function with images, you may need to install graphviz on your machine.
Here is how you can do that for Mac and Ubuntu:
brew install graphviz
sudo apt-get install graphviz
I have included some basic benchmark code to measure performance. If you want to try it out, simply download the repository with:
$ git clone git clone https://github.com/vpaliy/merklelib.git
$ cd merklelib
And run it with python3 or python2 (additional arguments are optional):
$ python3 benchmark --size=2048 -a=8
Building: 0.016072 seconds.
Appending: 0.000868 seconds.
Tree size: 637401
Number of leaves: 2056
Audit proof verification times:
Average time: 0.00014690807392996172 seconds.
Total time: 0.304746 seconds.
Longest time: 0.000325 seconds.
Shortest time: 5.9e-05 seconds.
Consitency proof verification times (2056 trees):
Average time: 0.008714925583657588 seconds.
Total time: 17.925458 seconds.
Longest time: 0.035517 seconds.
Shortest time: 9e-05 seconds.
The above test provides the following results:
- how long it takes to build a Merkle tree.
- how long it takes append additional leaves.
- how long it takes to verify every single leaf that is included in the tree.
- how long it takes to prove that every possible sub-tree of the generated Merkle tree is consistent with the original one
You can also build your own benchmark. Here's a simple one that measure how long it takes to build a Merkle tree with 65536 leaves:
>>> import os
>>> import timeit
>>> from merklelib import MerkleTree
>>> leaves = [os.urandom(2048) for i in range(2**16)]
>>> def timeav(code, n=20):
>>> return timeit.timeit(
... code, setup="from __main__ import MerkleTree, leaves", number=n)/n
...
# time taken to build the tree
>>> print timeav("MerkleTree(leaves)")
0.70325
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