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Table of Contents

Data Types

Strings

Mutating strings

In Python, Strings are immutable.

s = "Sun"
s[0] = "F" # => TypeError: 'str' object does not support item assignment

In Ruby, Strings are mutable.

s = "Sun"
s[0] = "F"
s #=> Fun

In JavaScript, Strings are immutable.

let s2 = "Sun";
s2[0] = "F"; // The action is not performed but no error is triggered
console.log(s2[0]); // Sun

Interpolating strings

In Python

q = "quick"
f"The {q} brown box"

In Ruby

q = "quick"
"The #{q} brown box"

In JavaScript

q = "quick";
`The ${q} brown box`;

Slicing strings

In Python, we use the [] function, passing in three params:

  1. Start index
  2. End index (which is excluded)
  3. Stepper
s = "abcdefghijk"
s[0:3]  # From index 0 to 3 (exclusive) => "abc"
s[:3]   # From the start to index 3 (exclusive) => "abc"
s[1:]   # From index 1 to the end => "bcdefghijk"
s[::2]  # From the start to the end in steps of 2 => "acegik"

In Ruby, we use the slice function, passing two params:

  1. Start index
  2. Number of chars you want to take
s = "abcdefghijk"
s.slice(0,3)  # From 0, take the 3 first chars => "abc"

Alternatively, you can pass a range (considering the end index is included)

s = "abcdefghijk"
s[0..3] # From index 0 to 3 (inclusive) => "abcd"

Or a regex, with an optional capture group

s = "abcdefghijk"
s[/[aeiou]/]      #=> "a"

In JavaScript, we use the slice function, passing two params:

  1. Start index
  2. End index (which is excluded)
s = "abcdefghijk"
s.slice(0,3) # From index 0 to 3 (exclusive) => "abc"

Reversing strings

In Python

s[::-1] # From the start to the end in steps of 1, counting backwards => "kjihgfedcba"

In Ruby

s.reverse #=> "kjihgfedcba"

In JavaScript

There's no built-in method to do this.

Capitalizing strings

In Python

s.upper()
s.lower()

In Ruby

s.upcase
s.downcase

In JavaScript

s.toUpperCase();
s.toLowerCase();

Integers

In Python

1 / 2 #=> 0.5 True Division

In Ruby

1 / 2 #=> 0 Integer Division
1.0 / 2.0 #=> 0.5 Float Division

In JavaScript

1 / 2; //=> 0.5 True Division

Booleans

In Python

True
False

In Ruby

true
false

In JavaScript

true;
false;

None (Python), nil (Ruby), null (JavaScript)

In Python

None

In Ruby

nil

In JavaScript

null;

Truthyness

For quick reference:

Python Ruby JavaScript
None/nil/null ❌ ❌ ❌
"" ❌ ✅ ❌
[] ❌ ✅ ✅

In Python

not(not(None)) #=> False
not(not("")) #=> False
not(not([])) #=> False

In Ruby

!!nil #=> False
!!"" #=> True
!![] #=> True

In JavaScript

!!null; //=> False
!!""; //=> False
!![]; //=> True

Operators

Equality

In Python and Ruby we use strict equality.

==

In JavaScript we have two distinct operators for abstract and strict equality. See MDN for more details.

== // Abstract equality comparison (compares values after converting them to the same type)
=== // Strict equality comparison

Boolean

In Python we use:

and
or
not

Note the &&, || and ! boolean operators are not available in Python.

In Ruby we use:

&&
||
!

Note that though the and, or and not operators are available in Ruby, they are better suited as control flow operators. If we choose to use them as boolean operators (which is against general advice), we must be aware of the fact that they have a lower precedence than their counterparts (&&, || and !).

In Javascript we use:

&&
||
!

Note the and, or and not operators are not available in JavaScript.

Relational

These work in the same way in all three languages.

>
<
>=
<=

Data Structures

Lists (Python) / Arrays (Ruby and JavaScript)

Creating a list

In Python

my_list = ['a', 'b', 'c']

In Ruby

my_list = ['a', 'b', 'c']

In JavaScript

const myList = ["a", "b", "c"];

Adding an item

In Python

my_list.append('d')

In Ruby

my_list.push('d')

In JavaScript

myList.push("d");

Removing items

In Python

my_list.pop()
my_list.pop(1) #=> "b" Removes and returns the element at index 1

In Ruby

my_list.pop()
my_list.pop(2) #=> ["b", "c"] Removes and returns as many items as indicated, in this case 2 items

In JavaScript

myList.pop();
myList.pop(1); //=> "b" Removes and returns the element at index 1

Counting items

In Python

len(my_list)

In Ruby

my_list.length

In JavaScript

myList.length;

Getting the minimum and maximum items

In Python

min([1, 2, 3])
max([1, 2, 3])

In Ruby

[1, 2, 3].min
[1, 2, 3].max

In JavaScript

Math.min(...[1, 2, 3]);
Math.max(...[1, 2, 3]);

Checking for the inclusion of an item

In Python

1 in [1, 2, 3]

In Ruby

[1, 2, 3].include?(1)

In JavaScript

[1, 2, 3].includes(1);

Sorting items

In Python

my_list.sort() # Sorts the list in place, doesn't return anything

In Ruby

my_list.sort # Sorts
my_list.sort! # Sorts the list in place

In JavaScript

myList.sort(); // Sorts the list in place, and returns it

Reversing items

In Python

my_list.reverse() # Reverses the list in place, doesn't return anything

In Ruby

my_list.reverse # Reverses
my_list.reverse! # Reverses the list in place

In JavaScript

myList.reverse(); // Reverses the list in place, and returns it

Zipping lists/arrays together

In Python

a = [1, 2, 3]
b = ["a", "b", "c"]

for item in list(zip(a, b)):
    print(item)

# (1, 'a')
# (2, 'b')
# (3, 'c')

In Ruby

a = [1, 2, 3]
b = %w[a b c]

a.zip(b).each do |item|
  puts item
end

# 1
# a
# 2
# b
# 3
# c

In JavaScript

There's no built-in method to do this.

Creating lists out of ranges

In Python

range(10) # From 0 to 10 (exclusive) => [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
range(0, 10) # From 0 to 10 (exclusive)
range(0, 10, 2) # From 0 to 10, in steps of 2 => [0, 2, 4, 6, 8]

To convert ranges to lists, we do list(range(0,10)).

In Ruby

0..10 # From 0 to 10 (inclusive) => [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]
0...10 # From 0 to 10 (exclusive) => [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

To convert ranges to arrays, we do (0..10).to_a.

In JavaScript

There's no built-in method to create ranges.

Comprehending Lists

In Python

new_list = [some_method(i) for i in old_list if condition_method(i)]

In Ruby and JavaScript, there's no built-in method to do this.

Mapping lists

In Python

def square(n):
    return n ** 2


map(square, [1, 2, 3]) #=> [1, 4, 9]

Or, with a lambda:

map(lambda n: n ** 2, [1, 2, 3])

In Ruby

def square(n)
  n ** 2
end

[1, 2, 3].map { |n| square(n) }

Or:

[1, 2, 3].map { |n| n ** 2 }

In JavaScript

function square(n) {
  return n ** 2;
}

[1, 2, 3].map(n => square(n));

Or:

[1, 2, 3].map(n => n ** 2 );

Filtering lists

In Python

def is_even(n):
    return n % 2 == 0


filter(is_even, [1, 2, 3])  # => [2]

Or, with a lambda:

filter(lambda n: n % 2 == 0, [1, 2, 3])

In Ruby

def is_even?(n)
  n.even?
end

[1, 2, 3].filter { |n| is_even?(n) }

In this specific case, we could use a more idiomatic approach with the even? built-in method.

[1, 2, 3].filter(&:even?)

In JavaScript

function isEven(n) {
  return n % 2 == 0;
}

[1, 2, 3].filter(n => isEven(n));

Or:

[1, 2, 3].filter(n => n % 2 == 0);

Sets

In Python

Sets are unordered collections of unique values.

my_set = set()
my_set.add(1) # {1}
my_set.add(2) # {1,2}
my_set.add(2) # {1,2}

In Ruby

In order to use them, the Set module needs to be required.

require 'set'
my_set = Set[]
my_set.add(1)
my_set.add(2)
my_set.add(2)

In JavaScript

mySet = new Set();
mySet.add(1);
mySet.add(2);
mySet.add(2);

Tuples

In Python

Tuples, unlike lists, are immutable, to ensure elements don't get flipped or reassigned.

my_tuple = ('a', 'a', 'b')
my_tuple.index('a')
my_tuple.count('a')

In Ruby and JavaScript, there's no concept of tuples.

Named tuples

In Python

color = (red=255, green=0, blue=0)

In Ruby, there's no concept of named tuples, however, Struct or OpenStruct could be used as alternatives.

require 'ostruct'

Color = Struct.new(:red, :green, :blue)
color = Color.new(255, 0, 0)

In JavaScript, there's no concept of named tuples, object literals are used instead.

const color = { red: 255, green: 0, blue: 0 };

Dictionaries (Python) / Hashes (Ruby) / objects (JavaScript)

In Python

my_dict = {
  'apple': 2.99,
  'oranges': 1.99,
  'watermelon': 0.5
}
my_dict['apple']
my_dict.get('banana', 2.5) # Augments the method above, providing a default value
my_dict.keys()
my_dict.values()
my_dict.items() # Converts the dictionary into a list

In Ruby

my_hash = {
  apple: 2.99,
  oranges: 1.99,
  watermelon: 0.5
}
my_hash[:apple]
my_hash.fetch(:banana, 2.5) # Augments the method above, providing a default value
my_hash.keys
my_hash.values
my_hash.to_a # Converts the hash into an array

In JavaScript

myObj = {
  apples: 2.99,
  oranges: 1.99,
  watermelon: 0.5,
};
myObj.apple;
Object.keys(myObj);
Object.values(myObj);
Object.entries(myObj);

Checking for the inclusion of a key

In Python

"a" in {"a": 1}

In Ruby

{ a: 1 }.key?(:a)

In JavaScript

"a" in { a: 1 };

Statements

If

In Python

if True:
    print("âś…")
elif True:
    print("❌")
else:
    print("❌")

In Ruby

if true
  puts('âś…')
elsif true
  puts('❌')
else
  puts('❌')
end

In JavaScript

if (true) {
  console.log("âś…");
} else if (true) {
  console.log("❌");
} else {
  console.log("❌");
}

Ternary if

In Python

"✅" if True else "❌"

In Ruby and JavaScript

true ? "✅" : "❌"

Switch

In Python

Switch statements are not available.

In Ruby

location = 'Beach'

case location
when 'Beach'
  puts 'Flip flops'
when 'Home'
  puts 'Chewbacca slippers'
when 'Mountain', 'Jungle'
  puts 'Boots'
else
  puts 'Sneakers'
end

In JavaScript

const location = "Beach";

switch (location) {
  case "Beach":
    console.log("Flip flops");
    break;
  case "Home":
    console.log("Chewbacca slippers");
    break;
  case "Mountain":
  case "Jungle":
    console.log("Boots");
    break;
  default:
    console.log("Sneakers");
}

For

Iterating over lists/arrays

In Python

for n in [1, 2, 3]:
    print(n)

In Ruby

%w[a b c].each do |n|
  puts n
end

In JavaScript

for (n of [1, 2, 3]) {
  console.log(n);
}

Iterating with an index over lists/arrays

In Python

for index, n in enumerate([1, 2, 3]):
    print(f"index: {index}, n: {n}")

In Ruby

[1, 2, 3].each_with_index do |n, index|
  puts "index: #{index}, n: #{n}"
end

In JavaScript

for ([index, n] of [1, 2, 3].entries()) {
  console.log(`index: ${index}, n: ${n}`);
}

Iterating over dictionaries/hashes/objects

In Python

my_dict = {"a": 1, "b": 2, "c": 3}

for k, v in my_dict.items():
    print(f"k:{k}, v:{v}")

In Ruby

my_hash = { a: 1, b: 2, c: 3 }

my_hash.each do |k, v|
  puts "k: #{k}, v: #{v}"
end

In JavaScript

const myObject = { a: 1, b: 2, c: 3 };

for (const k in myObject) {
  console.log(`k:${k}, v:${myObject[k]}`);
}

While

In Python

x = 0

while x < 11:
    print(x)
    x += 1
else:
    print("Stop")

In Ruby

x = 0

while x < 11
  puts x
  x += 1
end

In JavaScript

let n = 0;

while (n < 11) {
  console.log(n);
  n++;
}

Break

Breaks out of the closest enclosing loop. The same break keyword is used in all three languages.

Continue/Next

Skips the rest of the current iteration and goes to the top of the closeset enclosing loop.

In Python

continue

In Ruby

next

In JavaScript

continue;

Arguments

Passing positional arguments

In Python

def my_function(a, b, c=3):
    return f"a:{a}, b:{b}, c:{c}"


print(my_function(1, 2))  # => a:1, b:2, c:3

In Ruby

def my_function(a, b, c = 3)
  "a:#{a}, b:#{b}, c:#{c}"
end

puts(my_function(1, 2)) # => a:1, b:2, c:3

In JavaScript

function myFunction(a, b, c = 3) {
  return `a:${a}, b:${b}, c:${c}`;
}

console.log(myFunction(1, 2)); //=> a:1, b:2, c:3

Passing positional arguments, with options

In Python

def my_function(a, b, c = 3, *args):
    return f"a:{a}, b:{b}, c:{c}, args:{args}"


print(my_function(1, 2, 33, 4, 5, 6)) #=> a:1, b:2, c:33, args:(4, 5, 6)

Note *args is treated as a tuple.

In Ruby

def my_function(a, b, c = 3, *args)
  "a:#{a}, b:#{b}, c:#{c}, args:#{args}"
end

puts(my_function(1, 2, 33, 4, 5, 6)) # => a:1, b:2, c:33, args:[4, 5, 6]

Note *args is treated as an array.

In JavaScript

function myFunction(a, b, c = 3, ...args) {
  return `a:${a}, b:${b}, c:${c}, args:${args}`;
}

console.log(myFunction(1, 2, 33, 4, 5, 6)); //=> a:1, b:2, c:33, args:4,5,6

Note ...args is a destructured array. This is known as the Rest Parameters Syntax, with ... being referred to as the "Rest Operator".

Alternatively, we could achieve a similar result by destructuring ("spreading") an array inside a function call. In this context ... is referred to as the Spread Operator.

Here's how that looks like:

Math.max(...[1, 2, 3]) //=> 3

Passing named/keyword arguments

In Python

def my_function(a, b, c=3):
    return f"a:{a}, b:{b}, c:{c}"


print(my_function(b=2, a=1))  # => a:1, b:2, c:3

In Ruby

def my_function(a:, b:, c: 3)
  "a:#{a}, b:#{b}, c:#{c}"
end

puts(my_function(b: 2, a: 1)) # => a:1, b:2, c:3

In JavaScript

JavaScript doesn’t have named/keyword parameters. The official way of simulating them is via object literals.

function myFunction({ a, b, c = 3 } = {}) {
  return `a:${a}, b:${b}, c:${c}`;
}

console.log(myFunction({ b: 2, a: 1 })); //=> a:1, b:2, c:3

Passing named/keyword arguments, with options

In Python

def my_function(a, b, c=3, **kwargs):
    return f"a:{a}, b:{b}, c:{c}, kwargs:{kwargs}"


print(my_function(b=2, a=1, d=4, e=5, f=6))
# => a:1, b:2, c:3, kwargs:{'d': 4, 'e': 5, 'f': 6}

In Ruby

def my_function(a:, b:, c: 3, **kwargs)
  "a:#{a}, b:#{b}, c:#{c}, kwargs:#{kwargs}"
end

puts(my_function(b: 2, a: 1, d: 4, e: 5, f: 6))
# => a:1, b:2, c:3, kwargs:{:d=>4, :e=>5, :f=>6}

In JavaScript

function myFunction({ a, b, c = 3, options = {} } = {}) {
  return `a:${a}, b:${b}, c:${c}, options:${JSON.stringify(options)}`;
}

console.log(myFunction({ b: 2, a: 1, options: { d: 4, e: 5, f: 6 } }));
//=> a:1, b:2, c:3, options:{"d":4,"e":5,"f":6}

Classes

Instantiating a class and using its methods

In Python

class Triangle():
    def __init__(self, *sides):
        self.sides = sides

    def perimeter(self):
        return sum(self.sides)


Triangle(2, 3, 5).perimeter()   # => 10

In Ruby

class Triangle
  def initialize(*sides)
    @sides = sides
  end

  def perimeter
    @sides.sum
  end
end

Triangle.new(2, 3, 5).perimeter   #=> 10

In JavaScript

class Triangle {
  constructor(...sides) {
    this.sides = sides;
  }
  get perimeter() {
    return this.sides.reduce((partialSum, n) => partialSum + n, 0);
  }
}

new Triangle(2, 3, 5).perimeter;  //=> 10

Inheriting from a class

In Python

class Polygon():
    def __init__(self, *sides):
        self.sides = sides

    def perimeter(self):
        return sum(self.sides)


class Triangle(Polygon):
    def area(self):
        pass


class Rectangle(Polygon):
    def area(self):
        return self.sides[0] * self.sides[1]


rectangle = Rectangle(5, 2, 5, 2)
rectangle.perimeter()     # => 14
rectangle.area()          # => 10

In Ruby

class Polygon
  def initialize(*sides)
    @sides = sides
  end

  def perimeter
    @sides.sum
  end
end

class Triangle < Polygon
  def area
    # ...
  end
end

class Rectangle < Polygon
  def area
    @sides[0] * @sides[1]
  end
end

rectangle = Rectangle.new(5, 2, 5, 2) #=> #<Rectangle:0x00007fd8c3033740>
rectangle.perimeter   #=> 14
rectangle.area        #=> 10

In JavaScript

class Polygon {
  constructor(...sides) {
    this.sides = sides;
  }
  get perimeter() {
    return this.sides.reduce((partial_sum, a) => partial_sum + a, 0);
  }
}

class Triangle extends Polygon {
  get area() {
    // ...
  }
}

class Rectangle extends Polygon {
  get area() {
    return this.sides[0] * this.sides[1];
  }
}

const rectangle = new Rectangle(5, 2, 5, 2); //=> Rectangle { sides: [ 5, 2, 5, 2 ] }
rectangle.perimeter; // 14
rectangle.area; // 10

Checking if a class inherits from another

In Python

issubclass(rectangle.__class__, Polygon)

In Ruby

rectangle.class.ancestors.include?(Polygon)

In JavaScript

rectangle instanceof Polygon;

Extending parent class methods with super

In Python

class Polygon():
    def __init__(self):
        pass

    def greet(self):
        print('Hi from Polygon')


class Triangle(Polygon):
    def greet(self):
        super().greet()
        print('Hi from Triangle')


Triangle().greet()

# Hi from Polygon
# Hi from Triangle
# None

In Ruby

class Polygon
  def initialize; end

  def greet
    puts 'Hi from Polygon'
  end
end

class Triangle < Polygon
  def greet
    super
    puts 'Hi from Triangle'
  end
end

Triangle.new.greet

# Hi from Polygon
# Hi from Triangle

In JavaScript

class Polygon {
  constructor() {}
  greet() {
    console.log("Hi from Polygon");
  }
}

class Triangle extends Polygon {
  greet() {
    super.greet();
    console.log("Hi from Triangle");
  }
}

new Triangle().greet();

// Hi from Polygon
// Hi from Triangle

Encapsulating methods within a class

In Python

class Triangle():
    def __init__(self, *sides):
        self.sides = sides

    def greet(self):
        return f"Hi! {self.__triangle_type()} triangle here."

    def __triangle_type(self):
        unique_side_count = len(set(self.sides))

        if unique_side_count == 1:
            return "Equilateral"
        elif unique_side_count == 2:
            return "Isosceles"
        else:
            return "Scalene"


t = Triangle(3, 3, 3)

t.greet()
# => Hi! Equilateral triangle here.

t.__triangle_type()
# => AttributeError: 'Triangle' object has no attribute '__triangle_type'

In Ruby

class Triangle
  def initialize(*sides)
    @sides = sides
  end

  def greet
    "Hi! #{triangle_type} triangle here."
  end

  private

  def triangle_type
    case @sides.uniq.count
    when 1 then 'Equilateral'
    when 2 then 'Isosceles'
    when 3 then 'Scalene'
    end
  end
end

t = Triangle.new(3, 3, 3)

t.greet 
# => Hi! Equilateral triangle here.

t.triangle_type 
# => private method `triangle_type' called for #<Triangle:0x00007fa795033dd0 @sides=[3, 3, 3]> (NoMethodError)

In JavaScript

As of today, there's no native support for private methods or properties in JavaScript.

The prevalent convention is to prefix them with an underscore (_) to indicate they should be treated as private, however, this is just an artifact to aid communication; it has no actual effect.

class Triangle {
  constructor(...sides) {
    this.sides = sides;
  }

  greet() {
    return `Hi! ${this._triangleType()} triangle here.`;
  }

  _triangleType() {
    const uniqueSideCount = new Set(this.sides).size;

    switch (uniqueSideCount) {
      case 1:
        return "Equilateral";
      case 2:
        return "Isosceles";
      case 3:
        return "Scalene";
    }
  }
}

const triangle = new Triangle(3, 3, 3);

triangle.greet();
// Hi! Equilateral triangle here.

triangle._triangleType();
// Equilateral

Extending classes with modules

In Python

We'd need 2 separate files.

In extrudable.py:

def volume(area, height):
    return area * height

In circle.py:

import extrudable
import math


class Circle():
    def __init__(self, radius):
        self.radius = radius

    def area(self):
        return math.pi * (self.radius ** 2)

    def volume(self, height):
        return extrudable.volume(self.area(), height)


c = Circle(radius=4)  #=> <__main__.Circle object at 0x7ff05587c9d0>
c.area()              #=> 50.26548245743669
c.volume(height=10)   #=> 502.6548245743669

In Ruby

module Extrudable
  def volume(height:)
    area * height
  end
end

class Triangle
  include Extrudable

  def area
    # ...
  end
end

class Circle
  include Extrudable

  def initialize(radius:)
    @radius = radius
  end

  def area
    Math::PI * (@radius ** 2)
  end
end

c = Circle.new(radius: 4)
c.area
c.volume(height: 10)

In JavaScript

We'd need 2 separate files.

In extrudable.js:

function volume(area, height) {
  return area * height;
}

module.exports = { volume };

In circle.js:

const { volume } = require("./extrudable");

class Circle {
  constructor(radius) {
    this.radius = radius;
  }

  area() {
    return Math.PI * this.radius ** 2;
  }

  volume(height) {
    return volume(this.area(), height);
  }
}

const c = new Circle(4);
c.area();
c.volume(10);

Alternatively, ES6 modules (currently experimental) could be used:

  • In extrudable.js:
    export default { volume };
    
  • In circle.js:
    import { volume } from "./extrudable";
    

Using class-level constants

In Python

class Triangle():
    NUMBER_OF_SIDES = 3

In Ruby

class Triangle
  NUMBER_OF_SIDES = 3
end

In JavaScript

There's no native support yet, however, there's an experimental feature which refers to class-level constants as a class' public static fields.

Raising errors

In Python

class Triangle():
    NUMBER_OF_SIDES = 3

    def __init__(self, *sides):
        self.__validate_number_of_sides(sides)

        self.sides = sides

    def __validate_number_of_sides(self, sides):
        if len(sides) != self.NUMBER_OF_SIDES:
            raise ValueError(f"expected {self.NUMBER_OF_SIDES} sides")


Triangle(1)
# => ValueError: expected 3 sides

In Ruby

class Triangle
  NUMBER_OF_SIDES = 3

  def initialize(*sides)
    validate_number_of_sides(sides)

    @sides = sides
  end

  private

  def validate_number_of_sides(sides)
    raise ArgumentError, "invalid number of sides (expected #{NUMBER_OF_SIDES})" if sides.size != NUMBER_OF_SIDES
  end
end

Triangle.new(1)
# invalid number of sides (expected 3) (ArgumentError)

In JavaScript

class Triangle {
  constructor(...sides) {
    this._validateNumberofSides(sides);

    this.sides = sides;
  }

  _validateNumberofSides(sides) {
    const maxNumberOfSides = 3;

    if (sides.length != maxNumberOfSides) {
      throw new Error(`invalid number of sides (expected ${maxNumberOfSides})`);
    }
  }
}

new Triangle(1);
// => Error: invalid number of sides (expected 3)

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